INTRODUCTION:

A programming language (PL) is a notational framework for describing computation that is both machine and human understandable. A programming language is a tool for constructing models that can be executed to solve a certain set of issues¹. A programming language (PL) is a set of instructions that inform a computer how to do certain tasks. A PL is a set of rules for communicating an algorithm. PL provides a linguistic foundation for describing computations².

People speak English as if it were their first tongue. There are words, symbols, and grammatical rules to be found. A programming language consists of words, symbols, and grammar rules. The grammatical rules are referred to as syntax. Every programming language has its own set of syntactic rules³.

As new approaches for building programming languages have become accessible, they have evolved over time. The earliest programming languages were developed in the 1950s. Since then, thousands of new languages have been developed, with different programming languages appropriate for different types of projects⁴.

Levels of PL

The levels of PL are described⁵ in table 1.

Table 1: Levels of computer programmes and their example

Level of Program	Example
High-level program	Class Triangle {. . .float surface() return b*h/2;}
Low-level program	LOAD r1,b
	LOAD r2,h
	MUL r1,r2
	DIV r1,#2
	RET RET
Executable Machine code	00010010010001010010010011101100 10101101001...

Types of PL

· First Generation Languages

· Second Generation Languages

· Third Generation Languages

· Fourth Generation Languages

· Fifth Generation Languages

First Generation Languages (1GL):

It's known as "machine language." It is made up of Operands and Operation Codes (for example, addition and subtraction) (Viz., data to be processed). Machine language is machine-dependent since it is the only language that the computer understands. It's incredibly efficient code, but it's also very difficult to write⁶.

Second generation language (2GL):

"Assembly languages" is another name for it. Symbolic operation codes took the place of binary operation codes in this case. 2GL had to be "assembled" before it could be run by the computer. Each assembly language command is converted into a single machine language command. 2GL is a code that is both efficient and simple to write⁷.

Third generation language (3GL):

It has a stronger resemblance to English, but with the addition of basic mathematical notation. Source code programmes must be translated into machine language programmes, which are referred to as "object code" in this scenario. The translation of source code to object code is performed by a compiler, which is a machine language system software. Compilation is an alternative to interpretation, which is executed by a system software known as an interpreter⁸.

E.g., FORTRAN, COBOL, C and C++, Visual Basic.

Fourth generation language (4GL):

It's a high-level language (4GL) that completes a task with fewer instructions than a 3GL. Databases use query languages, report generators, Form designers, and application generators. 4GL refers to any computer programming language that is part of a group of languages envisioned as a step ahead from 3GL. Each each generation of programming languages aims to give a higher level of abstraction of internal computer hardware specifics, resulting in a language that is more programmer-friendly, powerful, and adaptable. While the definition of 4GL has changed over time, it is defined by the ability to handle large volumes of data at once rather than just bits and bytes. Database management, report production, mathematical optimization, GUI (graphical user interface) development, and online development may all be supported by 4GL languages. According to some academics, 4GLs are a subset of domain-specific languages⁹.

Fifth generation language (5GL):

Natural language programmes may generally be translated and performed by a computer without the user having to do anything other than ask a question, despite the lack of a definite description at this moment. It has limited functioning at the moment¹⁰.

5GL is utilised to have the computer handle an issue without the need for a programmer, while 4GL is used to construct specialised programmes. Instead of worrying about how to solve problems using a routine or algorithm, the user can focus on what problems need to be solved and what conditions need to be met. 5GL is largely used in artificial intelligence research.

E.g., OPS5 (Official Production System version 5) and Mercury

5GL was seen as the way of the future in the 1980s, with some predicting that they would eventually replace procedural programming with constraint-based programming for all jobs that could be defined as a set of logical constraints¹¹.

Principal paradigms:

· Imperative Programming (C)

· Object-Oriented Programming (C++)

· Logic/Declarative Programming (Prolog)

· Functional/Applicative Programming (Lisp)

Classification of Program languages:

PL are classified into two broad groups, i.e., traditional programming languages and object-oriented languages¹².

Traditional programming languages:

These comprise of sequences of instructions and another is First, second and some 3GL^13-16.

Fortran:

It is named after “formula Translation” that was developed at IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) in the mid-1950s. Scientists and engineers created it for scientific and mathematical applications.

Cobol:

It is based on the Common Business Oriented Language, which was created in 1959.It was designed to be common to many different computers. It is most commonly utilised in corporate applications.

Basic:

It is a Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code that was developed at Dartmouth College in the mid-1960s. It was created as a simple programming language for students to use to create programmes that they could interact with via terminals.

Bell Laboratories invented it in the early 1970s. It has 3GL features and enables assembly language control and efficiency. It's frequently used in system programmes. UNIX is written in the C programming language.

Object-oriented languages:

Objects are created rather than sequences of instructions, and some third-, fourth-, and fifth-generation languages are employed.

Simula:

It was the first object-oriented language developed by Ole Johan Dahl in the 1960s.

Smalltalk:

Xerox created the first entirely object-oriented language in the mid-1970s. On some PCs, it is still in use.

C++

It's a C-like language with a few extra features. It's a popular tool for creating system and application software. Visual programming tools make it simple to create graphical user interfaces.

Java:

It's an object-oriented language that's comparable to C++ but without many of C++'s flaws. It enables a web page developer to create applets, which are browser-based programmes for applications. The goal of JAVA developers is for the language to be machine, platform, and operating system agnostic.

Special Programming languages:

Scripting Languages:

These include JavaScript and VBScript; Php and ASP; Perl and Python

Command Languages:

There are three of them: sh, csh, and bash.

Text processing Languages:

This includes LaTex, and PostScript.

HTML:

It is expanded as the HyperText Mark-up Language. It is used on the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW). In order to indicate how the page should be formatted the web page developer inserts short codes called “tags into the page.

XML:

Extensible Mark-up Language is the name given to it once it was enlarged. It is a language that is used to define other languages.

Purpose for program languages:

In many ways, learning to speak and use a programming language is akin to learning to speak a human language when it comes to the mechanics of the process. In both sorts of languages, new vocabulary, syntax, and semantics must be learned (new words, sentence structure and meaning). Both of these languages take a lot of practise to master. The lack of ambiguity and vagueness in computer languages distinguishes them. Consider the following¹⁷ for a better understanding.

· In English sentences, such as: I saw a man with a microscope (Who had the microscope?) or Take a pinch of salt (How much is a pinch?)

· In a programming language, a sentence either means one thing or it means nothing.

Previously, computers were more expensive than programmers (in terms of run time performance). And today, in the life cycle (human) cost, ease of design, coding, debugging, maintenance, and reusability are increasingly essential.

Criteria for a good language:

The criteria for a good computer program language are as follows^18-20.

· Writability:

The ability for a programmer to represent a computation explicitly, correctly, concisely, and swiftly using a language.

· Readability:

The ability of a language to allow a programmer to simply and accurately understand and comprehend the nature of a computation.

· Orthogonality:

The quality of a language is determined by how few limits it has and how easily it can be combined in any meaningful way.

· Reliability:

A language's ability to ensure that a programme will not behave in unexpected or disastrous ways during execution.

· Maintainability: It's possible to find and improve the quality of a language that makes it easier to make mistakes, as well as introduce new features.

· Generality: A language's ability to avoid unusual situations in construct availability or use by combining closely related constructs into a single, more general construct.

· Uniformity: The property of a language in which similar features should appear and function in the same way.

· Extensibility: The ability of a language to offer a user a generic mechanism for adding new constructs to the language.

· Standardability: The ability of a language to be transferred from one computer to another without causing substantial changes in the linguistic structure.

· Implementability: It is possible to write about the quality of a language that supplies a translation or interpreter. This can address the language definition's complexity.

CONCLUSION:

The technology world expands exponentially with each passing year and month. They are continually producing new, up-to-date telephones and tablets, and the market fight for first place is heating up. Programmers and web developers in this field are in high demand right now because they have a thorough understanding of the numerous programming languages available, each of which serves a specific purpose.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors have no conflicts of interest regarding this investigation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

The authors would like to thank the department head for his encouragement and support.

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Received on 11.01.2022 Accepted on 10.03.2022

Int. J. Tech. 2022; 12(1):16-20.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-3915.2022.00003